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Cross-Cultural Research, Vol. 41, No. 4, 364-395 (2007)
DOI: 10.1177/1069397107306529

How Competition Is Viewed Across Cultures

A Test of Four Theories

R. David Hayward

University of Nevada, haywardr{at}unr.nevada.edu

Markus Kemmelmeier

University of Nevada

Competition is a pervasive aspect of human life. Yet the values and attitudes that people have concerning competition vary widely, from the belief that it underpins the social order to the belief that it corrodes positive social ties. This research examines the structural and cultural roots of these attitudes across societies. Contrasting predictions from five social theories (Marxism, system justification, Protestant ethic, postmaterialism, and individualism) were derived and tested using data from the World Values Survey. Study 1 tests the various hypotheses examining differences between societies. Using a mixed-level model, Study 2 examines the individuals' attitudes toward competition in the context of both individual-level and societal-level factors. Results indicate that competitive values are consistently related to Protestantism, both at the level of individual affiliation and cultural religious history, especially when structural factors are controlled. However, only limited support was found for the idea that attitudes toward competition vary as function of one's position in the socioeconomic structure, economic regulation, postmaterialist values, and individualism.

Key Words: economic attitudes • competition • Protestant ethic • system justification • postmaterialism • religion


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